A study of the history of computers will reveal there is no single inventor. Because it’s made of different components, no single date can be given for its invention either. Instead a chronology will make things clearer.

1830s to 1900s

As early as 1833, Charles Babbage had already designed an apparatus capable of performing automated calculations. His invention was primarily an analytical engine. Although it had problems functioning, it was in every real sense a computer. Other notable inventors and pioneers of the period were Percy Ludgate and Herman Hollerith.

1930s and World War II

1936 saw the emergence of the Z1 computer, the first one that could be programmed. This was followed by the Mark I in late 1944. However it was World War II that led to greater development.

The history of computers would be influenced by war needs like calculating data, breaking codes and encrypting information. This would lead to the invention of large mainframe computers. From the 1950s onwards, businesses would see its potential for making work easier. One of the pioneers would be International Business Machines (IBM).

The 1980s: Rise of the PC

During the late 1970s, the idea of having these machines in offices became popular. Several companies like Hewlett Packard, Apple and Radio Shack started manufacturing these.

IBM decided to create an open bus / architecture system. This would encourage third party vendors to come out with applications to support it. The history of computers would be changed by the introduction of the IBM PC in 1981.

The IBM PC

This system used the Intel 8088 microprocessor and came with 16 K of RAM (random access memory). It had a monochrome screen and could not display graphics. Its disk drive could hold 160 K of data. This was double what most disks could carry at the time.

Microsoft Windows

IBM did not make an operating system for its PC. Instead it hired a company called Microsoft to develop one. It came up with MS DOS. As the amount of software grew, it became clear that a new operating system was needed. While IBM was developing OS2 which would replace MS DOS, Microsoft released Windows. The history of computers would be changed forever. Windows 3.0 and its successor, Windows 3.1 sold millions of copies.

The new user interface made the PC accessible to non technical users. With the pull down menus, people could now use the PC without having to learn complex command line syntax. The creation of the WYSIWYG technology made word processing easier. Now one could print out what was on screen. Eventually it led to the development of paint and spreadsheet programs too.

The increase in CPU speed have grown rapidly as have the RAM and disk space. From the 16K of RAM and 160 K disk, now computers come with at least 512 MB of RAM and gigabytes of disk space.

The succeeding years has seen technology grow by leaps and bounds. The hardware and software continue to develop. The history of computers shows just how rapid the innovations have come and doubtless more are being done at this very moment.

The answer to this question depends on which portion of the Great Wall is being referred to. The Great Wall of China is actually a series of walls built over many dynasties that spanned thousands of years.

After uniting the warring kingdoms in China in 221 BC, Emperor Qin Shi Huang decreed that the existing sections of several walls that were built from the 8th century to the 3rd century BC by these warring kingdoms be extended and expanded to protect against the northern Xiangnu empire located in present-day Mongolia. This structure, which became the first contiguous portion of the Great Wall, was finished in nine years during the reign of Emperor Qin Shi Huang from 221 to 206 BC. Further west, another portion parallel to the first wall was built during the Han Dynasty from 206 BC to 220 AC. Succeeding dynasties built the other portions to fend off the Mongols in 1368 and Manchu invaders in 1644.

The Great Wall of China stretches for 6,400 kilometers from as far north as modern day Russia to as far east to what is now Pyongyang in North Korea up to the Xinjiang province in modern day China. The Chinese name of this magnificent structure, which can be translated to “Infinitely Long Wall,” has also been often referred to as “The Long Graveyard” because of the number of people who perished building it. Myth has it that as many as several millions of people are buried underneath the walls. While interesting, this myth was later proven false by subsequent research.

Archers were the primary defense of the Great Wall of China. But because of its sheer size, it was physically and economically impossible to keep the Great Wall of China perpetually manned, so sentries were placed along strategic portions of the wall to warn against impending invaders. In case of attack, watchtowers located at intervals provided safe shelter for sentries and some soldiers while battlements with wide slits on the inside and narrow slits on the outside allow archers a wide angle shot.

To be sure, this huge structure could not repel a determined enemy and prevent him from marching into China as history has shown that invaders have broken through vulnerable portions of the wall such as the gates. Despite its weakneses, the Great Wall has at least served its purpose by slowing down the invaders and provided ample warning that bought the Chinese Empire some precious time to prepare for war.

The British conquest of Ireland from 1649-53 was an event that played a role in shaping the futures of the two nations. An understanding of its background is essential to knowing the situation that led to the conflict.

The Ormond Peace Accord

In 1649, the Irish Confederates forged an alliance with the English Royalists. This group had been involved in a war against the English Parliament. The Ulster Scots also joined forces with the Catholic Irish Confederates against the Protestant British. The Royalists and the Irish Confederates devised a plan to attack England and assume power.

The Battle of Rathmines

The English Parliament would respond by sending Oliver Cromwell to attack. This would prove significant in the British conquest of Ireland. The battle took place in Rathmines near Dublin. On August 2, the British launched a sudden attack that caught the Royalists by surprise.

They were still in the process of preparing their troops when the British attacked. According to some accounts, thousands of Royalist and Irish Confederates were killed. Scores were also taken prisoners. This victory allowed the English to march into Dublin in 1649 with little opposition.

The Invasion of Drogheda and Wexford

Following their victory at Rathmines, Cromwell led his men to Drogheda. Some accounts state that over 3,000 English soldiers came. Scores of civilians and Catholic clergy were killed. During this period in the British conquest of Ireland, civilians were also slaughtered.

At the town of Wexford, Cromwell and his men attacked in force. Over 2,000 Irish / Royalist soldiers were killed. The entire town was burned to the ground and over 1,400 civilians were massacred. Other towns were sacked. Other villages surrendered.

Battle of Leinster

In 1650, Cromwell and his men stormed Leinster. They were able to capture its capital Kilkenny but lost over 2,000 men. He also suffered extensive losses in capturing Clonmel.

The Settlement

After the conquest, the Parliament set about confiscating the properties of the Catholic civilians. The Royalist and Irish Confederate soldiers were imprisoned or banished to foreign lands.

The Catholic religion was forbidden and their books and ritual equipment burned. Rewards were given to those who would pinpoint the location of Catholic priests. Upon capture, they were summarily executed. These policies that took effect after the British conquest of Ireland were in part retaliation for earlier massacres committed by the Catholics.

Effects

The results of the brutal war were feelings of animosity by the Irish towards the British and vice versa. In the succeeding centuries, there would be conflicts among the two countries. Even after the monarchies had been replaced on both sides, the struggles continued.

A study of the two nations’ succeeding conflicts can be traced back to this event. Some of the more destructive conflicts like the war in 1689 had their roots in the conquest by Cromwell.

The British conquest of Ireland was an important event that altered the landscape of both countries in many ways. It led to several policy changes that would eventually have an impact not just on the UK but also in most of Europe.

There is no specific time when spring starts. It commences on different times in different parts of the world. However, it can be defined by the events that accompany it.

Basic Definition and Duration

This season takes place after the winter and before summer. Generally the days and nights are nearly equal.

The season commences at the spring equinox and culminates at the summer solstice. This period takes place at different times. In the Northern Hemisphere this can occur from March 21 to June 22. In the Southern Hemisphere the period starts from September 23 to December 22. The movement of the Earth and weather fluctuations are the reasons why there is no definite period when spring starts.

Signs

Although March 21 is usually defined as its starting point, the signs and indications commence days before that. One of the most conspicuous signs will be the sun itself. Regardless of the location the sun will rise earlier, by an hour or so. It will also set about an hour later than usual.

The Sun, Clouds and Air

The sun doesn’t just appear earlier, but it is also much brighter. This has an effect on the air too. As the sun gets brighter the snow dissipates. The air breezes are much stronger. Depending on the continent / region, there may be accompanying rainfall. Climate changes though, can result in occasional snowfall.

When spring starts, cloud formation will also change. The dark grey thunderclouds of winter will be replaced by cumulus clouds.

Plants and Flowers

The season is associated with plant growth and rightly. Most floras grow during this time. Annuals appear and wild onions grow as well. Most flowers, including lilac, start to blossom as well. Flowers like tulips, daffodils and pansies come to bloom as well. Some of these flowers and plants can appear as early as February.

Animal Activity

Other signs are birds. Most birds begin to create their nests. Others begin their flights, including the geese. When spring starts, another conspicuous sign are robins appearing, fluttering and flying around in gardens. Aside from robins, bluebirds also appear.

A trip to the zoo will show that animals resume their activities. In zoos you will see animals soaking up the sun. Even in your homes, dogs and cats will do the same. Going to streams and forests you’ll see animal tracks as well. From coyotes to deer, these tracks will indicate their activities have resumed.

Insects will also become more active. An increase in their activity means the winter is about to end. You’ll likely see them flying around more often.

Trees

Most of the trees start to produce flowers as well. Aside from flowers, the leaves will start to appear. In some trees the flowers would be taken over by leaves. Most of the leaves start to gain their full color at this time.

When spring starts, most cultures look at the season as a time for rebirth, marking it with festivals and celebration. As such, it is probably the most celebrated of the seasons.

On the 4th day of July, 1776 America, specifically the Thirteen Colonies, formally declared its independence from Great Britain. For more than a year before this, Great Britain and the Thirteen Colonies had been waging war against each other. In summary, here are events leading to when did America gain independence.

Tax Disputes

US independence from Great Britian all started during a tax dispute between the Colonies and the British Parliament. The Colonies were grossly misrepresented in Parliament. Hence, the colonists felt that Parliament had no right to impose taxes on them. This was especially so when it was making a new round of tax increase. The tax increase was due to the economic crisis in Great Britain then. This triggered the American revolution, starting the series of developments leading to when did America gain independence.

Parliament Tax Revenue Acts

To save the indebted economy of Great Britain, Parliament policies or Acts. Examples are the 1765 Stamp Act and the 1767 Townshend Acts. These gave rights to the Parliament to levy increased taxes on Americans to keep British presence in the Colonies. Unreasonable tax increases often trigger social unrest. This brought about the first social upheavals leading to the US independence from Great Britain. Some history experts trace back the time of when did America gain independence here.

Irreconcilable Differences on the British Constitution

Add to the tax crisis the divergent opinions on the British Constitution. The differing views on the Constitution had long been going on. The tax issue served as fuel to the fire. Soon, the heated debates led to war and to the formal declaration of US independence from Great Britain, written by Thomas Jefferson. This hatched the exact day of when did America gain independence.

The Boston Tea Party

In 1774, the Parliament wanted to punish the whole province of Massachusetts for the alleged provocative Boston Tea Party. So it passed the bill on Coercive Acts. The Colonists saw this as a breach of the British Constitution and of civil liberties. This led to the First Continental Congress in 1774, making the move for US independence from Great Britain more pronounced.

Thomas Paine Wrote His Piece

In the first month of 1776, Thomas Paine wrote his famous “Common Sense.” It was an argument for American independence. It also promoted republicanism as against hereditary and monarchial rule. In February of the same year, American ports were forcibly closed. American vessels were tagged as enemy ships by Parliament. The move for independence became stronger, especially with the participation of John Adams.

When did America Gain Independence?

On July 2, the Continental Congress voted to declare independence. Finally, on July 4, 1776, the Thirteen Colonies officially decided and declared they were no longer part of Great Britain. The declaration was approved and released by Congress.